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Purpose:	Start and communicate with additional processes.

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The subprocess module supports three APIs for working withprocesses. The run() function, added in Python 3.5, is ahigh-level API for running a process and optionally collecting itsoutput. The functions call(), check_call(), andcheck_output() are the former high-level API, carried over fromPython 2. They are still supported and widely used in existingprograms. The class Popen is a low-level API used to buildthe other APIs and useful for more complex process interactions. Theconstructor for Popen takes arguments to set up the newprocess so the parent can communicate with it via pipes. It providesall of the functionality of the other modules and functions itreplaces, and more. The API is consistent for all uses, and many ofthe extra steps of overhead needed (such as closing extra filedescriptors and ensuring the pipes are closed) are “built in” insteadof being handled by the application code separately.

The subprocess module is intended to replace functions such asos.system(), os.spawnv(), the variations of popen()in the os and popen2 modules, as well as thecommands() module. To make it easier to comparesubprocess with those other modules, many of the examples inthis section re-create the ones used for os and popen2.

Note

The API for working on Unix and Windows is roughly the same, butthe underlying implementation is different because of thedifference in process models in the operating systems. All of theexamples shown here were tested on Mac OS X. Behavior on anon-Unix OS may vary.

Running External Command¶

To run an external command without interacting with it in the same wayas os.system(), use the run() function.

The command line arguments are passed as a list of strings, whichavoids the need for escaping quotes or other special characters thatmight be interpreted by the shell. run() returns aCompletedProcess instance, with information about the processlike the exit code and output.

Setting the shell argument to a true value causes subprocessto spawn an intermediate shell process which then runs thecommand. The default is to run the command directly.

Using an intermediate shell means that variables, glob patterns, andother special shell features in the command string are processedbefore the command is run.

Note

Using run() without passing check=True is equivalent tousing call(), which only returned the exit code from theprocess.

Error Handling¶

The returncode attribute of the CompletedProcess is theexit code of the program. The caller is responsible for interpretingit to detect errors. If the check argument to run() isTrue, the exit code is checked and if it indicates an errorhappened then a CalledProcessError exception is raised.

The false command always exits with a non-zero status code,which run() interprets as an error.

Note

Passing check=True to run() makes it equivalent to usingcheck_call().

Capturing Output¶

The standard input and output channels for the process started byrun() are bound to the parent’s input and output. That meansthe calling program cannot capture the output of the command. PassPIPE for the stdout and stderr arguments to capturethe output for later processing.

The ls-1 command runs successfully, so the text it prints tostandard output is captured and returned.

Note

Passing check=True and setting stdout to PIPE isequivalent to using check_output().

The next example runs a series of commands in a sub-shell. Messages aresent to standard output and standard error before the commands exitwith an error code.

The message to standard error is printed to the console, but themessage to standard output is hidden.

To prevent error messages from commands run throughrun() from being written to the console, set thestderr parameter to the constant PIPE.

This example does not set check=True so the output of the commandis captured and printed. Bovada payout time.

To capture error messages when using check_output(), setstderr to STDOUT, and the messages will be merged withthe rest of the output from the command.

The order of output may vary, depending on how buffering is applied tothe standard output stream and how much data is being printed.

Suppressing Output¶

For cases where the output should not be shown or captured, useDEVNULL to suppress an output stream. This example suppressesboth the standard output and error streams.

The name DEVNULL comes from the Unix special device file,/dev/null, which responds with end-of-file when opened for readingand receives but ignores any amount of input when writing.

Working with Pipes Directly¶

The functions run(), call(), check_call(), andcheck_output() are wrappers around the Popen class.Using Popen directly gives more control over how the commandis run, and how its input and output streams are processed. Forexample, by passing different arguments for stdin, stdout, andstderr it is possible to mimic the variations of os.popen().

One-way Communication With a Process¶

To run a process and read all of its output, set the stdout value toPIPE and call communicate().

This is similar to the way popen() works, except that thereading is managed internally by the Popen instance.

To set up a pipe to allow the calling program to write data to it, setstdin to PIPE.

To send data to the standard input channel of the process one time,pass the data to communicate(). This is similar to usingpopen() with mode 'w'.

Bi-directional Communication With a Process¶

To set up the Popen instance for reading and writing at thesame time, use a combination of the previous techniques.

This sets up the pipe to mimic popen2().

Capturing Error Output¶

It is also possible watch both of the streams for stdout and stderr,as with popen3().

Reading from stderr works the same as with stdout. PassingPIPE tells Popen to attach to the channel, andcommunicate() reads all of the data from it before returning.

Combining Regular and Error Output¶

To direct the error output from the process to its standard outputchannel, use STDOUT for stderr instead of PIPE.

Combining the output in this way is similar to how popen4()works.

Connecting Segments of a Pipe¶

Multiple commands can be connected into a pipeline, similar to theway the Unix shell works, by creating separate Popeninstances and chaining their inputs and outputs together. Thestdout attribute of one Popen instance is used as thestdin argument for the next in the pipeline, instead of the constantPIPE. The output is read from the stdout handle forthe final command in the pipeline.

The example reproduces the command line:

The pipeline reads the reStructuredText source file for this sectionand finds all of the lines that include other files, then prints thenames of the files being included.

Interacting with Another Command¶

All of the previous examples assume a limited amount ofinteraction. The communicate() method reads all of the outputand waits for child process to exit before returning. It is alsopossible to write to and read from the individual pipe handles used bythe Popen instance incrementally, as the program runs. Asimple echo program that reads from standard input and writes tostandard output illustrates this technique.

The script repeater.py is used as the child process in the nextexample. It reads from stdin and writes the values to stdout, oneline at a time until there is no more input. It also writes a messageto stderr when it starts and stops, showing the lifetime ofthe child process.

The next interaction example uses the stdin and stdoutfile handles owned by the Popen instance in differentways. In the first example, a sequence of five numbers are written tostdin of the process, and after each write the next line ofoutput is read back. In the second example, the same five numbers arewritten but the output is read all at once usingcommunicate().

The 'repeater.py:exiting' lines come at different points in theoutput for each loop style.

Signaling Between Processes¶

The process management examples for the os module include ademonstration of signaling between processes using os.fork() andos.kill(). Since each Popen instance provides a pidattribute with the process id of the child process, it is possible todo something similar with subprocess. The next example combinestwo scripts. This child process sets up a signal handler for theUSR signal.

This script runs as the parent process. It startssignal_child.py, then sends the USR1 signal.

The output is:

Process Groups / Sessions¶

If the process created by Popen spawns sub-processes, thosechildren will not receive any signals sent to the parent. That meanswhen using the shell argument to Popen it will be difficultto cause the command started in the shell to terminate by sendingSIGINT or SIGTERM.

The pid used to send the signal does not match the pid of the child ofthe shell script waiting for the signal, because in this example thereare three separate processes interacting:

The program subprocess_signal_parent_shell.py
The shell process running the script created by the main pythonprogram
The program signal_child.py

To send signals to descendants without knowing their process id, use aprocess group to associate the children so they can be signaledtogether. The process group is created with os.setpgrp(),which sets process group id to the process id of the current process.All child processes inherit their process group from their parent, andsince it should only be set in the shell created by Popenand its descendants, os.setpgrp() should not be called in thesame process where the Popen is created. Instead, thefunction is passed to Popen as the preexec_fn argument soit is run after the fork() inside the new process, before ituses exec() to run the shell. To signal the entire processgroup, use os.killpg() with the pid value from thePopen instance.

The sequence of events is

The parent program instantiates Popen.
The Popen instance forks a new process.
The new process runs os.setpgrp().
The new process runs exec() to start the shell.
The shell runs the shell script.
The shell script forks again and that process execs Python.
Python runs signal_child.py.
The parent program signals the process group using the pid of the shell.
The shell and Python processes receive the signal.
The shell ignores the signal.
The Python process running signal_child.py invokes the signal handler.

Mach Kernel Abstractions

Mach provides a small set of abstractions that have been designedto be both simple and powerful. These are the main kernel abstractions:

Tasks. Theunits of resource ownership; each task consists of a virtual addressspace, a portrightnamespace, and one or more threads.(Similar to a process.)
Threads. The units of CPU execution withina task.
Addressspace. In conjunction with memory managers, Mach implementsthe notion of a sparse virtual address space and shared memory.
Memoryobjects. The internal units of memory management. Memoryobjects include named entries and regions; they are representationsof potentially persistent data that may be mapped into address spaces.
Ports.Secure, simplex communication channels, accessible only via sendand receive capabilities (known as port rights).
IPC.Message queues, remote procedure calls, notifications, semaphores,and lock sets.
Time.Clocks, timers, and waiting.

At the trap level, the interface to most Mach abstractionsconsists of messages sent to and from kernel ports representingthose objects. The trap-level interfaces (such as mach_msg_overwrite_trap)and message formats are themselves abstracted in normal usage bythe Mach Interface Generator(MIG).MIG is used to compile procedural interfaces to the message-basedAPIs, based on descriptions of those APIs.

Tasks and Threads

OS X processes and POSIXthreads (pthreads)are implemented on top of Mach tasks and threads, respectively.A thread is a point of control flow in a task. A task exists to provideresources for the threads it contains. This split is made to providefor parallelism and resource sharing.

A thread

is a pointof control flow in a task.
has access to all of the elements of the containing task.
executes (potentially) in parallel with other threads, eventhreads within the same task.
has minimal state information for low overhead.

A task

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is a collectionof system resources. These resources, with the exception of theaddress space, are referenced by ports. These resources may be sharedwith other tasks if rights to the ports are so distributed.
provides a large, potentially sparse address space, referencedby virtual address. Portions of this space may be shared throughinheritance or external memory management.
contains some number of threads.

Note that a task has no life of its own—only threads executeinstructions. When it is said that “task Y does X,” what isreally meant is that “a thread contained within task Y does X.”

A task is a fairly expensive entity. It exists to be a collectionof resources. All of the threads in a task share everything. Twotasks share nothing without an explicit action (although the actionis often simple) and some resources (such as port receive rights) cannotbe shared between two tasks at all.

A thread is a fairly lightweight entity. It is fairly cheapto create and has low overhead to operate. This is true becausea thread has little state information (mostly its register state). Itsowning task bears the burdenof resource management. On a multiprocessor computer, it is possiblefor multiple threads in a task to execute in parallel. Even whenparallelism is not the goal, multiple threads have an advantagein that each threadcan use a synchronous programming style, instead of attempting asynchronousprogramming with a single thread attempting to provide multipleservices.

A threadis the basic computational entity. A thread belongs to one and onlyone task that defines its virtual address space. To affect the structureof the address space or to reference any resource other than theaddress space, the thread must execute a special trap instructionthat causes the kernel to perform operations on behalf of the threador to send a message to some agent on behalf of the thread. In general,these traps manipulate resources associated with the task containingthe thread. Requests can be made of the kernel to manipulate theseentities: to create them, delete them, and affect their state.

Mach provides a flexible framework for thread–schedulingpolicies. Early versions of OS X support both time-sharing and fixed-priority policies.A time-sharing thread’s priority is raised and lowered to balanceits resource consumption against other time-sharing threads.

Fixed-priority threads execute for a certain quantum of time, and then areput at the end of the queue of threads of equal priority. Settinga fixed priority thread’s quantum level to infinity allows thethread to run until it blocks, or until it is preempted by a threadof higher priority. High priority real-time threads are usuallyfixed priority.

OS X also provides time constraint scheduling for real-timeperformance. This scheduling allows you to specify that your threadmust get a certain time quantum within a certain period of time.

Avenza geographic imager for adobe photoshop 6 0 for mac. Mach scheduling is described further in Mach Scheduling and Thread Interfaces.

Ports, Port Rights, Port Sets,and Port Namespaces

With the exception of the task’s virtual address space,all other Mach resources are accessed through a level of indirectionknown as a port.A port is an endpoint of a unidirectional communication channelbetween a client who requests a service and a server who providesthe service. If a reply is to be provided to such a service request,a second port must be used. This is comparable to a (unidirectional)pipe in UNIX parlance.

In most cases, the resource that is accessed by the port (thatis, named by it) is referred to as an object. Most objects namedby a port have a single receiver and (potentially) multiple senders.That is, there is exactly one receive port, and at least one sendingport, for a typical object such as a message queue.

The service to be provided by an object is determined by themanager that receives the request sent to the object. It followsthat the kernel is the receiver for ports associated with kernel-providedobjects and that the receiver for ports associated with task-provided objectsis the task providing those objects.

For ports that name task-provided objects, it is possibleto change the receiver of requests for that port to a differenttask, for example by passing the port to that task in a message. Asingle task may have multiple ports that refer to resources it supports.For that matter, any given entity can have multiple ports that representit, each implying different sets of permissible operations. Forexample, many objects have a name port anda controlport (sometimes called the privileged port).Access to the control port allows the object to be manipulated;access to the name port simply names the object so that you canobtain information about it or perform other non-privileged operationsagainst it.

Tasks have permissions to access ports in certain ways (send,receive, send-once); these are called port rights. A port can be accessed only via a right. Ports are often usedto grant clients access to objects within Mach. Having the rightto send to the object’s IPC port denotes the right to manipulatethe object in prescribed ways. As such, port right ownership isthe fundamental security mechanismwithin Mach. Having a right to an object is to have a capabilityto access or manipulate that object.

Port rights can be copied and moved between tasks via IPC. Doing so,in effect, passes capabilities to some object or server.

One type of object referred to by a port is a port set.As the name suggests, a port set is a set of port rights that canbe treated as a single unit when receiving a message or event fromany of the members of the set. Port sets permit one thread to waiton a number of message and event sources, for example in work loops.

Traditionally in Mach, the communication channel denoted bya port was always a queue of messages.However, OS X supports additional types of communication channels, andthese new types of IPC object are also represented by ports andport rights. See the section Interprocess Communication (IPC),for more details about messages and other IPC types.

Ports and port rights do not have systemwide names that allowarbitrary ports or rights to be manipulated directly. Ports canbe manipulated by a task only if the task has a port right in itsport namespace. A port right is specified by a port name, an integerindex into a 32-bit portnamespace. Each task has associated with it a single port namespace.

Tasks acquire port rights when another task explicitly insertsthem into its namespace, when they receive rights in messages, bycreating objects that return a right to the object, and via Machcalls for certain special ports (mach_thread_self, mach_task_self,and mach_reply_port.)

Memory Management

As with most modern operating systems, Mach provides addressingto large, sparse, virtual address spaces. Runtime access is madevia virtual addresses that may not correspond to locations in physicalmemory at the initial time of the attempted access. Mach is responsiblefor taking a requested virtual address and assigning it a correspondinglocation in physical memory. It does so through demand paging.

A range of a virtual address space is populated with datawhen a memory object is mapped into that range. All data in an addressspace is ultimately provided through memory objects. Mach asks theowner of a memory object (apager)for the contents of a page when establishing it in physical memoryand returns the possibly modified data to the pager before reclaimingthe page. OS X includes two built-in pagers—the defaultpager and the vnode pager.

The default pager handles nonpersistent memory, known as anonymousmemory. Anonymous memory is zero-initialized, and it existsonly during the life of a task. The vnode pager maps files intomemory objects. Mach exports an interface to memory objects to allowtheir contents to be contributed by user-mode tasks. This interfaceis known as the External Memory Management Interface, or EMMI.

The memory management subsystem exports virtual memory handlesknown as named entries or namedmemory entries. Like most kernel resources, these aredenoted by ports. Having a named memory entry handle allows theowner to map the underlying virtual memory object or to pass theright to map the underlying object to others. Mapping a named entryin two different tasks results in a shared memory window betweenthe two tasks, thus providing a flexible method for establishingshared memory.

Beginning in OS X v10.1, the EMMI systemwas enhanced to support “portless” EMMI. In traditional EMMI,two Mach ports were created for each memory region, and likewise twoports for each cached vnode. Portless EMMI, in its initial implementation,replaces this with direct memory references (basically pointers).In a future release, ports will be used for communication with pagersoutside the kernel, while using direct references for communicationwith pagers that reside in kernel space. The net result of thesechanges is that early versions of portless EMMI do not support pagersrunning outside of kernel space. This support is expected to bereinstated in a future release.

Address ranges of virtual memory space may also be populatedthrough direct allocation (using vm_allocate).The underlying virtual memory object is anonymous and backed by thedefault pager. Shared ranges of an address space may also be setup via inheritance. When new tasks are created, they are clonedfrom a parent. This cloning pertains to the underlying memory addressspace as well. Mapped portions of objects may be inherited as acopy, or as shared, or not at all, based on attributes associatedwith the mappings. Mach practices a form of delayed copy known as copy-on-write tooptimize the performance of inherited copies on task creation.

Rather than directly copying the range, a copy-on-write optimization is accomplishedby protected sharing. The two tasks share the memory to be copied,but with read-only access. When either task attempts to modify aportion of the range, that portion is copied at that time. Thislazy evaluation of memory copies is an important optimization thatpermits simplifications in several areas, notably the messaging APIs.

One other form of sharing is provided by Mach, through theexport of namedregions. A named region is a form of a named entry, butinstead of being backed by a virtual memory object, it is backedby a virtual map fragment. This fragment may hold mappings to numerousvirtual memory objects. It is mappable into other virtual maps,providing a way of inheriting not only a group of virtual memoryobjects but also their existing mapping relationships. This featureoffers significant optimization in task setup, for example when sharinga complex region of the address space used for shared libraries.

Interprocess Communication(IPC)

Communication between tasks is an important element of theMach philosophy. Mach supports a client/server system structurein which tasks (clients) access services by making requests of othertasks (servers) via messages sent over a communication channel.

The endpoints of these communication channels in Mach arecalled ports, while port rights denote permission to use the channel.The forms of IPC provided by Mach include

messagequeues
semaphores
notifications
lock sets
remote procedure calls (RPCs)

The type of IPC object denoted by the port determines theoperations permissible on that port, and how (and whether) datatransfer occurs.

Choctaw casino phone number. Important: The IPCfacilities in OS X are in a state of transition. In early versionsof the system, not all of these IPC types may be implemented.

There are two fundamentally different Mach APIs for raw manipulationof ports—the mach_ipc familyand the mach_msg family.Within reason, both families may be used with any IPC object; however,the mach_ipc calls arepreferred in new code. The mach_ipc calls maintainstate information where appropriate in order to support the notionof a transaction. The mach_msg callsare supported for legacy code but deprecated; they are stateless.

IPC Transactions and EventDispatching

When a thread calls mach_ipc_dispatch,it repeatedly processes events coming in on the registered portset. These events could be an argument block from an RPCobject (as the results of a client’s call), a lock object beingtaken (as a result of some other thread’s releasing the lock),a notification or semaphore being posted, or a message coming infrom a traditional message queue.

These events are handled via callouts from mach_msg_dispatch.Some events imply a transaction during the lifetime of the callout.In the case of a lock, the state is the ownership of the lock. Whenthe callout returns, the lock is released. In the case of remoteprocedure calls, the state is the client’s identity, the argumentblock, and the reply port. When the callout returns, the reply issent.

When the callout returns, the transaction (if any) is completed,and the thread waits for the next event. The mach_ipc_dispatch facilityis intended to support work loops.

Message Queues

Originally, the sole style of interprocess communication inMach was the messagequeue. Only one task can hold the receive right for a port denotinga message queue. This one task is allowed to receive (read) messagesfrom the port queue. Multiple tasks can hold rights to the portthat allow them to send (write) messages into the queue. Real money online casinos with no deposit bonus.

A task communicates with another task by building a data structurethat contains a set of data elements and then performing a message-sendoperation on a port for which it holds send rights. At some latertime, the task with receive rights to that port will perform a message-receiveoperation.

A message may consist of some or all of the following:

pure data
copies of memory ranges
port rights
kernel implicit attributes, such as the sender’s security token

The message transfer is an asynchronous operation. The messageis logically copied into the receiving task, possibly with copy-on-writeoptimizations. Multiple threads within the receiving task can beattempting to receive messages from a given port, but only one thread canreceive any given message.

Semaphores

Semaphore IPC objects support wait, post, and post all operations.These are counting semaphores, in that posts are saved (counted)if there are no threads currently waiting in that semaphore’swait queue. A post all operation wakes up all currently waitingthreads.

Notifications

Like semaphores, notification objects also support post andwait operations, but with the addition of a state field. The stateis a fixed-size, fixed-format field that is defined when the notificationobject is created. Each post updates the state field; there is asingle state that is overwritten by each post.

Locks

A lock is an object that provides mutually exclusive accessto a critical section. The primary interfaces to locks are transactionoriented (see IPC Transactions and Event Dispatching). During the transaction,the thread holds the lock. When it returns from the transaction,the lock is released.

Remote Procedure Call (RPC) Objects

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As the name implies, an RPC object is designed to facilitateand optimize remote procedure calls. The primary interfaces to RPCobjects are transaction oriented (see IPC Transactions and Event Dispatching)

When an RPC object is created, a set of argument block formatsis defined. When an RPC (a send on the object) is made by a client,it causes a message in one of the predefined formats to be createdand queued on the object, then eventually passed to the server (the receiver).When the server returns from the transaction, the reply is returnedto the sender. Mach tries to optimize the transaction by executingthe server using the client’s resources; this is called threadmigration.

Time Management

The traditional abstraction of time in Mach is the clock, which provides a setof asynchronous alarm services based on mach_timespec_t.There are one or more clock objects, each defining a monotonicallyincreasing time value expressed in nanoseconds. The real-time clockis built in, and is the most important, but there may be other clocksfor other notions of time in the system. Clocks support operationsto get the current time, sleep for a given period, set an alarm(a notification that is sent at a given time), and so forth.

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The mach_timespec_t API is deprecatedin OS X. The newer and preferred API is based on timer objectsthat in turn use AbsoluteTime asthe basic data type. AbsoluteTime isa machine-dependent type, typically based on the platform-nativetime base. Routines are provided to convert AbsoluteTime valuesto and from other data types, such as nanoseconds. Timer objectssupport asynchronous, drift-free notification, cancellation, andpremature alarms. They are more efficient and permit higher resolutionthan clocks.